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Immanuel Kant was a productivity hacker's dream. He was the 18th-century Andrew Huberman, but instead of talking about testosterone and ice baths, he spoke about the transcendental dialectic of the soul.
For over 40 years, he woke up at 5:00 a.m., wrote for three hours, lectured for four, took the same walk on the same route daily, and had dinner with the same friend before retiring precisely at 10:00 p.m. His routine was so precise that neighbours joked they could set their clocks by him.
But beneath this clockwork life, Kant was a revolutionary thinker whose ideas shaped our understanding of morality, ethics, and even human rights. Yet, when Kant proclaimed his ethical rule—act that you use humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means (which pretty much comes down to ‘don’t use people’)—he wasn’t just setting up shop in the ivory tower. He was laying out a universal standard for morality.
But here’s the rub: can something as complex and culturally embedded as “being a good person” be reduced to a single rule? Kant thought so. Then again, who can say for sure? I didn’t know the guy, and people still debate his meaning. Anyway, cultural psychology gives us a far more nuanced picture.
Universal Ethics or Cultural Relativism?
Kant's categorical imperative demands universality. Lying isn’t just wrong because it’s inconvenient; it undermines the rational agency of others, a principle Kant believed should hold across all contexts.
But cultural psychology tells us that morality isn’t always so clear-cut. Research by Richard Shweder and colleagues on cultural variability in moral systems suggests that what counts as “good” behaviour often depends on the society in question. Shweder identified three primary moral ethics:
The Ethics of Autonomy: Common in individualistic cultures like the U.S., where morality is tied to individual rights and harm prevention.
The Ethics of Community: Found in collectivist cultures like India, emphasizing loyalty, duty, and hierarchy.
The Ethics of Divinity: Prominent in many religious societies, where morality centres on purity and sanctity.
Take lying, for example. In Kant’s view, it’s always wrong. However, studies in collectivist cultures show that lying to protect family harmony might be seen as not only acceptable but morally necessary.
Also, if you’re interested in learning about how my IBS resulted in a situation which would be frowned upon in all three ethical constructs, check out Shared Washrooms.
What Goodness Looks Like Around the World
The idea of what it means to "be good" shifts dramatically across cultures.
Japan: The concept of amae, or the dependency and acceptance of another’s benevolence, guides social behaviour. A "good" person harmonizes their desires with the group’s needs.
Greece: The ancient concept of areté (virtue) focuses on excellence and fulfilling one's potential, tying goodness to individual achievement and societal contributions.
Indigenous Cultures: Among the Lakota Sioux, being good centers around woohitika (courage) and wacantognaka (generosity), reflecting a deep interdependence with community and nature.
Kant’s emphasis on universal rationality might resonate in some cultures, like those shaped by Enlightenment ideals, but it can clash in contexts where morality is relational and contingent.
Rationality as Sacred, But Whose Rationality?
Kant argued that the defining feature of humanity is our capacity for rationality—the ability to weigh options, make decisions, and act consciously. Without it, he claimed, the universe would be “a waste in vain and without purpose.”
Yet modern thinkers like Jonathan Haidt argue that our moral decisions are driven less by cold rationality and more by emotional intuition. His Social Intuitionist Model suggests that we justify our moral choices post hoc, meaning that what feels good to us culturally and emotionally often precedes rational explanations.
For example, in Western societies, prioritizing individual rights over communal obligations feels “rational” because it aligns with cultural norms. But in East Asian cultures, where harmony often trumps individual expression, rationality might favour decisions that preserve group cohesion.
However, our emotions cloud how we perceive what is rational. Some people think Jordon Peterson is a rational thinker, whereas he’s also playing on the emotions of disenfranchised fuck boys (I’ve got sucked in from time to time). Some people think Astrology is rational because Astronomy wasn’t their forte, and they need a sense of control in a chaotic world. I thought asking a woman to marry me after a few weeks was rational based on the success stories in my family and Disney. Of course, Peterson, Astrology, and my love life are far from true rationality and logic.
‘Human stupidity’ is the biggest threat to our future.
— Brian Cox
Letting my emotions take the lead and losing touch with reality has been the cause of most of my suffering. It was also the cause of some of the most mystical and happy moments, but those were merely bubbles of air that prolonged my drowning.
And megalomaniacs know how to use those bubbly moments to cloud our judgment. Whether it’s the high and togetherness you felt at some new-age retreat, rave, religious ceremony, or never-before-felt chemistry on a first date, some people know how to exploit that to sell you their next course, drug, movement, and above all, “their reality.”
Unfortunately, if we want to overcome challenges like AI regulation, climate crises, or avoiding global war, we need to stay in touch with what physicists call reality. That reality holds true when people try to disprove it; it’s not like the others, which only seem true when someone tries to prove it. It might be hard to understand and occasionally unpleasant, but it’s healthier than the reality of our emotions—the reality that can be manipulated and distorted.
A New Lens on Kant’s Rule
Let’s reframe Kant’s rule—never treat humanity merely as a means, but always as an end—through a cultural psychology lens. What does this look like when applied across different moral systems?
Autonomy-Based Cultures: Kant’s principle resonates strongly. Individual agency and dignity align with the ethics of autonomy, where harm reduction and fairness are paramount.
Community-Based Cultures: Treating others as “ends” might involve fulfilling relational duties. For instance, a child caring for aging parents isn’t just performing a duty but honouring intergenerational respect.
Divinity-Based Cultures: Here, the imperative might extend to the sacred. Treating others as “ends” could involve acts of reverence or ensuring one’s behaviour aligns with divine will.
So, Can We Agree on How to Be Good?
Kant gives us a framework, but cultural psychology shows us that goodness is rarely one-size-fits-all. It’s tempting to dismiss cultural relativism as a slippery slope where anything goes. Yet, understanding how different societies construct morality can enrich our ethical frameworks.
Rather than seeing Kant’s categorical imperative as rigid and universal, we can interpret it as aspirational—a reminder to treat others with respect and dignity, even when our definitions of respect and dignity differ.
In a world that’s increasingly interconnected, perhaps being a good person means holding space for these differences while still striving for shared values like fairness, compassion, and understanding.
I can respect you, no matter your beliefs or whatever else you use to make your reality more palpable. But the second the people selling you those beliefs, ideas, or substances try to prove rather than disprove why their reality is the True one, please promise me that you’ll ask yourself the question, “Is this person or movement treating me as an end—or merely as a means?”
Born Without Borders is a reader-supported guide to the craft of nonconformity, cultural psychology, travel writing and how to salir de las fronteras que impone tu mente. Both free and paid subscriptions are available. If you want to support my work and help me upgrade to more than one cabin bag, the best way is to take out a paid subscription or Buy Me a Coffee.
I hope you feel like I’m treating you like an end, not a means, but that’s pretty hard in a capitalist society.
If you are interested in English lessons for global citizens (or know anyone who is), please send me a message or visit English for Global Citizens.
I also offer cultural competency classes, where I mediate discussions with diverse groups of people. Finding common interests and goals is the best way to build bridges across divides.
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